Assessment of hardness of water samples from selected closed water system in Kitgum Municipality, Kitgum District, Northern Uganda

Abstract

This study conducted in Kitgum Municipality evaluated the water quality of closed water systems, revealing that 96.7% of samples were classified as very hard water. The mean concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and iron were 79.87 mg/L, 48.689 mg/L, and 0.525 mg/L respectively, with varying ranges. These findings were compared against USGS and WHO standards, highlighting consistent classification of very hard water and occasional iron levels exceeding WHO guidelines. Geological factors, including limestone and dolomite deposits, were proposed as contributors to high mineral content, while iron presence could have stemmed from local soil and Rock leaching or infrastructure corrosion. Implications of these findings span public health and infrastructure domains, with health risks linked to cardiovascular diseases, Kidney stone and other organ damages from prolonged hard water consumption, alongside dermatological issues from elevated iron and iron overload. Infrastructure faces challenges like scaling and system deterioration, escalating maintenance costs and impairing domestic and industrial appliances efficiency. Mitigating strategies such as ion exchange, reverse osmosis and Lime Soda softening were proposed, contingent on application scale, water quality targets, cost-efficiency, and energy use. Comprehensive monitoring and public education on health risks are recommended to ensure sustainable water quality management in Kitgum Municipality.