School of Biosecurity, Biotechnolgy and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS) Collection

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    Prevalence of Candida Albicans and its associated risk factors among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at Zia Angelina Health Center III, Namugongo
    (Makerere University, 2018-07) Legesse, Hailemariam Gangesso
    Introduction: Candida infection of the genital tract is one of the commonest sexually transmitted diseases and the most singular cause of vaginal discharge among pregnant women and also has health effects to the unborn baby. Objectives: The study was aimed at determining the prevalence of vaginal candidiasis and the risk factors associated with infection among pregnant women attending Zia Angelina Health Center III, Namugongo. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out between January-March, 2018 among 150 pregnant women in which selection was by subject consent and presence at the clinics. High vaginal swabs (HVS) were taken by inserting a sterile cotton wool swab into the posterior vaginal fornix and rotated gently before withdrawing. The swabs were then inoculated in sterile Czapek Dox enrichment Broth before subculturing on Potato Dextrose Agar. The suspected colonies were confirmed with germ tube test in pooled plasma. The data generated was analyzed using SPSS version 20 to obtain descriptive statistics. Both bivariate and multivariate analysis were done using binary logistic regression to obtain crude Odds Ratio (cOR) and adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) respectively of associated risk factors at 95% Confidence Interval. Results: The study showed that 52 (34.7%) while 98 (65.3%) were not infected. The age group of the participants was significantly (p=0.024) associated with vaginal candidiasis with high infection rate among aged 38 to 42 years (100%) while none was infected for those aged above 42 years. The women who wore tight underwear were 3.642 times more likely to be infected compared to those who wore free pants, this was statistically significant (aOR= 3.642, 95% CI= 1.023-12.957, p= 0.046). Furthermore, the study also reported high infection rates among women who took antibiotics were (40.9%) compared to those who didn’t take (29.6%). Conclusions: The fact that vaginal candidiasis is the commonest sexually transmitted diseases among pregnant women, this calls for a more radical approach to its management in addition to education of women about health impacts of tight underwear and irrational use of antibiotics without proper medical guidance.
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    Comparative efficacy of skimmed cow milk and soymilk based extenders on sperm viability for cryopreservation of bull semen
    (Makerere University, 2019-07) Uwizeyimana, Marie Josee
    Maintaining a successful artificial insemination program depends on a number of factors, including evaluation of semen characteristics. The quality of preserved semen depends on several factors but dilution of sperms in a suitable extender is one of the important factors affecting sperm survival during preservation. Components of animal origin may also present a potential microbiological risk compromising the quality of preserved semen and standardization. This study compared the efficacy of soya milk and skimmed milk based extenders on the sperm motility and live sperm concentration of bull semen at different storage conditions before and after cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen. This could be an alternative to replace the components of animal's origin in semen extenders. During this study, semen samples were collected from 3 mature healthy exotic bulls within a reproductive age and having proper nutrition using an artificial vagina and analysis done using computer aided semen analysis (CASA). The semen samples were diluted using the two extenders and then kept in the fridge at 4oC for 2 hours before packaging. Refrigerated semen was also evaluated for the above parameters before cryopreservation. Overall, percent motility was relatively higher for all the study bulls (above 70%). All the samples exhibited a live percentage of over 80% immediately after collection. In the present study, satisfactory sperm quality parameters were sustained in semen diluted with both extenders for the study period, immediately after refrigeration, freezing and cryopreservation with relatively better results in soya milk extender compared to skimmed milk. The results of statistical analysis revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the efficacy of soya milk and skimmed milk extenders (p<0.05). There was also no difference in the semen parameters when observed over the period of four days
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    Antibacterial and antifungal activities of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of conyza sumatrensis from Namayingo District, Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2019-07) Owori, Benard
    Current strategies to overcome the global problem of antimicrobial resistance include research in finding new and innovative from plants. This study was carried out to determine the antibacterial activity of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Conyza sumatrensis leaves which are used in folklore medicine to treat infections of microbial origin in Namayingo district, Uganda. Ethanol and aqueous extracts were derived and screened for their antimicrobial activity against Standard cultures of E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans using the agar well diffusion assays at concentrations of 15, 30 and 50 mg/ml. Qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of tannins, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, and glycosides. Alkaloids were however not found. Both aqueous and ethanol extracts of the plant exhibited antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus whereas E. coli showed total resistance. The extracts were also effective against the test fungi; Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans. The aqueous and ethanol extracts showed lower antimicrobial activity against the study organisms compared to streptomycin and Miconazole. Similarly, ethanol extracts exhibited better activity than aqueous extracts. This in vitro study corroborated the antimicrobial activity of Conyza sumatrensis used in folklore medicine. The plant could be a potential source of new antimicrobial agents.
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    Anti-bacterial activity of ethanolic extract Of Allium Sativum against archived Salmonella Typhi and Staphylococcus Aureus
    (Makerere University, 2019-07) Kalema, Leymon
    This cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the antibacterial activity of A. sativum on S. typhi and S. aureus. This cross-sectional evaluation was carried out in the microbiology laboratory Mulago, between April and July 2019. Samples of A. sativum were obtained from a local market. It was thoroughly, cleaned, and peeled sterilized with ethanol and then washed with clean water. Standard isolates of S. typhi and S. aureus obtained from an archive in Mulago Hospital were cultured on Mueller Hinton agar. Ethanolic extract of A. sativum was prepared using mortar and pestle for grinding and muslin cloth was used to obtain the liquid part of the extract, after which the extract was taken to oven to evaporate ethanol, and put into the rotary evaporator to remove the remaining water then the stock concentration was made. The antibacterial activity of A. sativum was tested on S. typhi and S. aureus using agar well diffusion method on Mueller Hinton agar plates, MIC and MBC. The diameters of Inhibition zones of growth were measured in millimeter (mm), the dilution of 1:0 exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity against the tested organisms with 39mm on S. aureus and 28mm on S. typhi. And for MIC, a higher concentration of the 50mg/ml A. sativum extract was required to inhibit the growth of S. typhi and S. aureus and the least concentration that followed dilution of extract that inhibited bacterial growth was 25mg/ml. Minimum bactericidal concentration, the plates that cultured test tubes 1 to 2, showed no bacterial growth while plate used for culturing test tube 3 showed pure growth for S. aureus and for S. typhi all plates showed no bacterial growth this indicated that the concentration needed for killing Gram-positive (S. aureus) was 100mg/ml and that of Gram-negative was 50mg/ml.
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    Determining the antibacterial activity of Okra (Abelmoschus Esculentus) seed extracts on Pseudomonas Aeruginosa.
    (Makerere University, 2019-07) Lunkuse, Jesca Medrine
    Abelmoschus esculentus, commonly known as Okra, is traditionally used in the treatment of cuts, wounds and boils. In this study, the antibacterial activity of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the seeds of Okra was determined against Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates. Airdried, pulverized samples of Okra seeds were separately extracted using 70% analytical grade ethanol and distilled water, respectively. 500mg of the concentrated crude extract were separately dissolved in 1ml of dimethylsulfoxide to obtain ethanolic and aqueous test samples which were compared against 250mg/ml ciprofloxacin as a positive control. The antibacterial activity of the extracts was determined using agar-well diffusion method on Muller-Hinton agar on which Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate was surface-spread. The diameter of the inhibition zone was compared to the positive control and the minimum inhibitory concentration of the extracts was determined. The isolates of P. aeruginosa were highly sensitive to the positive control, ciprofloxacin, with inhibition zone diameter of 44mm (significantly higher than ≥21mm) whereas they were only partially sensitive to both the ethanol and aqueous extracts, with inhibition zones of 14mm and 10mm diameter, respectively. The results of this study showed that Abelmoschus esculentus seed extracts are not effective for use against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as there sensitivity was very low compared to standard or positive control, ciprofloxacin.
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    Prevalence of hepatitis b and associated factors among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic at Buhinga Hospital
    (Makerere University, 2019-07) Mukabaliisa, Patience
    Background: Viral hepatitis is one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. HBV infected mothers during pregnancy are at a high risk of transmission to the new born. In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) there are very few studies of HBV infection among pregnant women despite the highest burden of HBV which has existed. Earlier, it was revealed that sub-Saharan Africa is second with the largest population of chronic carriers HBV infection after Asia, estimated to be about 50millions according to Burnett et al., (2005), followed by western pacific, hence a high risk of developing life-threatening liver disease Aim: To determine the prevalence of Hepatitis Band associated factors in pregnant women attending antenatal care at Fort Portal Regional Referral Hospital.Methods: A cross sectional study was performed at the antennal unit within FPRRH between anuary-March. Data was collected using questionnaires to assess factors predisposing pregnant women to HBV. Rapid chromatographic immune assay for detection of HBsAg of HBVwas used to detect the HBV statuses of the participants. Data was analysed using STATA to get the prevalence and calculate the association of factors. Results: Among 299participants, 6 (2%) had HBV. The most represented age-group was 16-24years(54.8%). 64.6% of the women were married and 35.4% single. Statistically significant factors were; refugee status (OR 53, 95%CI 2.29-137.82, p value =0.013) refugees vs non-refugees among the single women (table 3), blood transfusion(OR 103 95%CI 3.44-1087.06, p value = 0.008) those who have had it vs those who have not yet, amongst the single women (table 3). Conclusion and recommendation: HBV is low among pregnant women attending antenatal care at FPRRH as compared with all the other regions of Uganda besides the south-west (0.8%) (UPHIA, 2016). Hepatitis B within the region is not an immediate threat to pregnant women within the region as shown by the prevalence. Young women/girls (16-24 years) are more likely to become pregnant yet by that age school is mandatory. Majority of the women depend on the husband as bread-winners since most of them are housewives.Government and development partners in health need to pay special attention to the factors that predispose the women to HBV so as to tackle the problem in the future. There is a need to urgently introduce
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    Microbial safety of ready to eat fruits in selected streets around Kampala, Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Tumwesigye, Jasper
    Background; Food borne diseases contribute significantly to the global burden of morbidity and mortality across the human population especially among children under the age of five years. Geographically, the greatest burden occurs in Africa, especially in low and middle income settings (kirk et al., 2015; Torgerson et al., 2014), but even in developed countries, the incidence of many foodborne infections remains unacceptably high despite ongoing food safety efforts (crim et al., 2015), with all the associated benefits of fresh fruits, they have become important vehicles in food-borne diseases. Microbial contamination of fruits has resulted into food-borne illness that annually affects about 2millions people globally. The present study aimed to assess the microbial safety of ready to eat fruits vended in selected streets of Kampala. Methods; A cross-sectional study involving ready to eat fruits was conducted in the selected streets of Kampala where samples were collected from different fruit venders. Microbiological contamination involving the determination of total plate count, total coliform count and total E.coli count were conducted on the collected samples and the colonies were enumerated and expressed as cfu/g. Results; The mean total plate count (TPC) was 2.14x102cfu/g in mangoes, 2.57x102 cfu/g in watermelon and 2.3x102cfu/g in pineapples, while total coliform was 2.14x102 cfu/g in mangoes, 1.6x102 cfu/g in watermelon and 6.4x101 cfu/g in pineapples while the total E coli was, 1.2x101cfu/g in mangoes, 4x100 cfu/g in watermelon and 7x100cfu/g in pineapples. The study showed that Watermelon has the highest average of microbial contamination (2.57x102cfu/g) while pineapples with the lowest average TBC (2.3X101cfu/g) in tested fruit samples. Conclusion and recommendation; the present study indicate presence of bacteria in the selected ready to eat fruits vended in the streets of Kampala, Uganda. Further studies should be conducted to determine the susceptibility of the isolates to the common antibiotics in the market
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    Antibiotic effects of Allium sativum extract and Gentamycin on sperm parameters in ram semen extended with honey
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Twehamye, Gershom
    Synthetic antibiotics, for a long time have been used in semen extender to preserve spermatozoa but have resulted in a number of side effects to both the sperm quality and the female recipients. This study compared the effects of Allium sativum(garlic) extract and gentamycin on sperm motility and membrane integrity in ram semen at room temperature within 2 hours and thereafter at short term storage at 4°C. Semen was collected by testis maceration followed by retrograde flushing or epididymal sperm floating and processed with a honey based extender. The experimental protocol involved two treatments that is, Allium sativum extract and gentamycin where media with no antibiotic was the control. Garlic aqueous extract was prepared and concentrated into appropriate doses. On addition of semen extender at room temperature (25°C), sperm motility and membrane integrity of diluted semen were assessed within 2 hours by microscopy.
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    Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of urinary tract infections in febrile children below 10 years attending Mulago hospital
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Ssemambo, Ronald
    Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are one of the most common infections in the pediatrics population. This study was performed to determine the prevalence of urinary tract infections amongst febrile children below 10 years attending Mulago National Referral Hospital, and the susceptibility patterns of the isolated uropathogens to common antibiotics. A cross-sectional study of febrile pediatric patients below 10 years from various ward of Mulago National Referral Hospital was conducted between January and May 2019. 160 participants met the inclusion criteria and were enrolled into the study. Patient’s information was collected through checking the medical files and interviews with the caretakers/parents. Mid-stream urine samples were also collected. The urine samples were cultured onto Blood Agar and Cystine Lactose Electrolyte Deficient (CLED) simultaneously. Growth was considered significant when a pure isolate had ≥ 105CFU/mL. Susceptibility to 8 antibiotics was set using the modified Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion technique. Of the 160 participants, 83(51.9%) were girls while 77(48.1%) were boys. 44(27.5%) of participants where 3 years and below, 52(32.5%) where above 3 years to 6 years, 64(40%) where between 6 and 10 years. Of the 160 urine samples, 29(18.1%) had significant bacterial growth. The frequency of UTIs was significantly higher in girls 20(69.0%) than boys 9(31.0%). Escherichia coli was the most predominant organism with 41.4%, followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae at 20.7%, Staphylococcus aureus at 13.8%, Pseudomonas aeruginosa at 10.3%, Citrobacter freundii at 6.9%, proteus mirabilis at 3.4% and Enterobacter spp. at 3.4%. Overall susceptibility tests exhibited a very high Antibiotic resistance of uropathogens to ampicillin (96.6%), cotrimoxazole (82.8%) and nalidixic-acid. Nitrofurantoin and imipenem showed the lowest resistances of 34.5% and 31.0% respectively. 24(82.8%) isolates were multidrug resistant. Bacteriuria is a common condition amongst febrile children attending Mulago hospital, with Enterobacteriaceae being the most predominant uropathogens. Uropathogens were highly sensitive to nitrofurantoin and imipenem but with significant resistance to ampicillin and cotrimoxazole
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    Comparative study of histochemical staining of negri bodies using lendrum’s phloxine-tartrazine and fuchsin safranine blue staining methods
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Nambajjwe, Nambajjwe
    Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease caused by infection with the rabies lyssavirus, which causes 55,000 human deaths annually worldwide with 95% occurring in Africa and Asia. Diagnosis of rabies started way back in 1880 with inoculation of rabbits with the rabies virus. Today there are many methods used in rabies diagnosis from routine techniques such as Lendrum’s Phloxine-Tartrazine method and Fuchsin Safranine blue method to rapid techniques such as direct Fluorescent Antibody Test (dFAT), Rapid immunodiagnostic test (RIDT) and others with Fluorescent Antibody Test as a gold standard. However, dFAT is expensive and requires experienced personals as well as special equipment which are not usually available in developing countries such as Uganda. The aim of this study was to assess the histochemical staining of Negri bodies using Fuchsin Safranin blue method in comparison to Lendrum’s method and demonstrating the structure of Negri bodies. A total of thirty achieved rabies suspected brain samples were sectioned and stained with Lendrum’s Phloxine-Tartrazine method and Fuchsin Safranine blue method. The stained sections were observed under a light microscope at x40 for the presence of Negri bodies. Out of 30 brain samples, 17 and 12 were found to be positive for Lendrum’s Phloxine-Tartrazine method and Fuchsin Safranin blue staining method respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, predictive value of positive results and predictive value of negative results of Fuchsin Safranin blue staining method in relation Lendrum’s Phloxine-Tartrazine method was found to 70.1%, 100%, 100% and 72.2% respectively. In conclusion, the sensitivity of Fuchsin Safranine blue method for rabies is low in relation to Lendrum’s method, Fuchsin Safranine blue method has a high specificity for rabies and Lendrum’s method gives the best picture of Negri bodies. Therefore Lendrum's method is recommended for diagnosis of rabies and demonstration of Negri bodies in brain samples to confirm rabies.
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    Bacterial safety of door handles/knobs in selected public toilets in down town Kampala
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Ayoto, Christine
    The bacterial safety of door handles/knobs in public toilets is still a major concern and a threat to the public health. Public toilet door handles/knobs serve as active vehicles in the transmission of pathogenic bacteria known to cause both mild and fatal diseases. Door handles/knobs within selected public toilets in Kampala down town more especially around bus terminals, taxi parks and markets were investigated for bacterial contamination. The study aimed at determining or detecting the presence of Escherichia. Coli and fecal pathogens notably salmonella and shigella and the total aerobic bacterial count from the selected public toilet door handles/knobs. A total of 60 samples were collected by swabbing door handles/ knobs and cultured for bacterial growth. Samples were inoculated by streaking on MacConkey and XLD agar and incubated at 370C for 24hours. After growth they were characterized phenotypically and then subjected to standard biochemical tests. The determination of total aerobic bacterial count was done by surface spreading on plate count a gar and counted manually. The study showed out of 60 samples 46(76.7%) bacterial contamination from the toilet door handles/knobs with E. coli obtained at (86.8%), salmonella (11.3%) and shigella (1.9%) from the toilet door handles/knobs. There was a significant difference in the prevalence of E. coli (p= 0.013) and no significant difference in the prevalence of salmonella and shigella. The mean total aerobic bacterial count was obtained at 23.53±20.51CFU/ml from the toilet door handles/knobs and therefore the adequate need for sanitary measures and personal hygiene practices to reduce cross-contamination.
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    Performance of a dithionate solubility-based diagnostic test kit for sickle cell disease at Central Public Health Laboratories in Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Ssenfuka, Vincent
    Sickle cell disease refers to a group of red blood cell disorders in people with an abnormal hemoglobin. This is created by a single nucleotide substitution at the sixth codon in the gene for production of hemoglobin. Diagnosis is an important aspect in management of the disease. Because the national sickle cell program is available in Uganda where all infants and new borns are screened for the sickle cell, this study assessed the performance characteristics of the dithionate solubility-based sickle cell diagnostic test in Uganda such that it can be used for the adults in massive sickle cell camps. In this study, 2ml of whole blood were collected in 5ml EDTA vacutainer tubes from 200 participants randomly who attended the sickle cell outreach programs organized by CPHL between December 2018 to April 2019. The blood samples were transported on ice to the sickle cell laboratory where they were stored in a fridge at 40c until analysis. A parallel testing technique was used where samples were analyzed with both the dithionate solubility test kit and isoelectric focusing electrophoresis. The results indicated that the dithionate solubility test kit had a sensitivity and specificity of 91% and 100% respectively. The positive and negative predictive values were 100% and 98% respectively and this indicated that it is an excellent rapid diagnostic test in detecting the sickle hemoglobin in adults. As a result, these rapid diagnostic tests should be used in Uganda to ease diagnosis and lower incidence of sickle cell cases at large. More research should also be done to evaluate the different forms of RDTS and validate their accuracy in detecting various diseases apart from sickle cell.
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    Environmental contamination with antimicrobial resistant pathogenic bacteria and Cryptococcus spp isolated from pigeon and marabou stork faecal matter in Mulago Hospital, Kampala
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Kizza, Godfrey
    Background: Environmental contamination with pathogenic microorganisms in routine medical care settings poses an increased risk of health care associated infections through cross-transmission as most outdoor hospital environment has been found to be an underestimated vital reservoir for certain pathogens. Antimicrobial resistance can complicate treatment and lead to poor management and prognostic outcomes of patients. Objective: The study was carried out to determine the existence of antimicrobial and antifungal resistant pathogenic microorganisms in faecal matter of pigeons and marabou stork birds that dwell and feed from Mulago hospital environment. Method: Specimens (n=150) of faecal matter were collected aseptically and analyzed in the laboratory. Colony characteristics and Gram technique were used to differentiate the organisms. Biochemical tests were done to confirm the species of the bacteria and Cryptococcus organisms. Sensitivity testing was done on the isolates using the disc diffusion method. Results: Pathogenic organisms were recovered from 92.4% of the specimens. The isolates were: E.coli37 (24.67%), Klebsiella pneumoniae 5 (3.33%), Staphylococcus aureus 8 (5.33%), Coagulase negative Staphylococcusspp43 (28.67%), Candida spp13 (8.67%), Citrobacter spp34 (22.67%), Proteus spp2 (1.33%) and Acinetobacter spp 1 (0.67%). Samples from Marabou stork generally had slightly more isolates than samples from pigeons. All E.coli isolates were susceptible to Cefotaxime, Amoxicillin/Clavulanic Acid, Ceftriaxone, Ciprofloxacin, Chloramphenicol, Amikacin, Doripenem, and Imipenem. Some isolates were resistant to Trimethoprim (10%), Gentamicin (70%) and Ampicilin (10%). E.coli isolates from marabou stork were susceptible to all antibiotics. Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from both marabou storks and pigeons were susceptible to all antibiotics. All Staphylococcus aureus isolates were susceptible to Cefoxitin and Gentamicin. 83.3% of the isolates were resistant Clindamycin, Oxacillin and Tetracycline. 16.7% were resistant to Penicillin, Ciprofloxacin and Ceftriaxone, 66.7% were resistant to Erythromycin and 33.3% were resistant to Vancomycin and Trimethoprim. Conclusion: Since a high proportion of samples had positive cultures, the access of the hospital environment by these pathogen carrying birds should be controlled. Attention should also be given to the outdoor hospital environment as potential habour for pathogens which could be transmitted to the hospital users. There is need to develop national surveillance of antibiotic- resistant organisms and also consider pigeons and marabou storks a risk species for spreading in the hospital environment antimicrobial resistant organisms.
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    Post-harvest practices and aflatoxin presence in groundnuts from selected households in Alebtong district northern Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Acen, Erovaster
    Aflatoxins exposure has had a devastating impact on human and animal health globally; chronic exposure to aflatoxins particularly leads to many health effects such as hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity, immunosuppression and growth retardation. This has led to increased attention on presence of aflatoxins in food stuffs. This is because some foods such as groundnuts, easily favor fungal activity while others do not. Research has also clearly documented aflatoxin presence in other staple foods, however, minimal research has documented the presence of aflatoxins in groundnuts products and how aflatoxins find their way into the groundnuts. This study therefore assessed the post-harvest handling practices of groundnuts and detected aflatoxin presence in groundnut samples from Abako sub-county Alebtong district, Northern Uganda. Post-harvest practices of groundnuts were assessed using key informant interviews that included members of different households and moisture content was determined to assess groundnut drying and storage conditions. The mean moisture content was 5.8473±0.16235% indicating effective drying of groundnuts (reference for proper drying is less than 12.5%). Thin layer chromatography (TLC) method was used to detect for the presence of aflatoxins from a total of sixty four groundnut samples of which 7(10.9375%) tested positive for aflatoxins. In addition aflatoxin G was more predominant than aflatoxin B where (4, 6.25%) of the samples tested positive of AFG and (3, 4.6875%) of the samples were positive for AFB. Therefore, in this study, the percentage contamination of aflatoxins versus the moisture content was low implying that extensive research involving more than one community, seasonal variations (collection of samples during different seasons), should be conducted so as to determine the variations in aflatoxin contamination and seasons and to prevent aflatoxin contamination as the effects are complicated to be treated and are not easily detected using the naked eyes.
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    Bacterial contamination of laptop computer keyboards used by students of COVAB and CHS, Makerere University
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Nabukirwa, Bridget
    Laptops computers are ubiquitous in the school setting and have been shown to be contaminated with potentially pathogenic and skin microorganisms. This study was carried out to determine the bacterial contamination of laptop computer keyboards used by students at Makerere University. Samples were collected from laptop keyboards from two different colleges i.e. College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal resources and Biosecurity and College of Health Sciences. A total of 80 samples were collected from computer keyboards (40 from each college). The collected samples were inoculated onto XLD agar, MacConkey agar and mannitol salt agar by following standard methods. The isolates obtained were examined and identified by colonial morphology, Gram reaction and biochemical characteristics. All (100%)S sampled laptops had growth of at least 1 or more microorganisms on culturing. Majority of keyboards sampled, tested positive for skin organisms, which included Staphylococcus aureus (77.5%) and Escherichia coli (36.3%). They also tested positive for pathogenic bacteria which included Salmonella spp (28.8%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (20%). Samples from COVAB had E. coli (52.5%), S. aureus (70%), Salmonella (32.5%), Pseudomonas (17.5%), and more than a third (35%) of the samples had both E. coli and S. aureus. Samples from CHS had E. coli (20%), S. aureus (85%), Salmonella (25%), Pseudomonas (22.5%), and less than quarter (17.5%) samples had both E. coli and S. aureus. However, the prevalence of E. coli was significantly (P=0.02) higher at COVAB compared to CHS. The study showed that microbial contamination of keyboards is prevalent and therefore, keyboards must always be decontaminated with disinfectants daily or when visibly soiled to reduce on chances of being infected.
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    Pathogenic bacterial contaminants of handrails and their antibacterial susceptibility patterns in selected areas within Makerere University, Kampala Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Namee, Winfred
    The major source and spread of community acquired infections are fomites. Microbiological investigation into public hand touch surfaces has gained a lot of attention from researchers because contaminated surfaces may act as potential reservoirs of pathogens. The current study aimed at assessing pathogenic bacterial contaminants of handrails and their antibacterial susceptibility patterns in selected areas within Makerere University, Kampala Uganda. A total of 120 samples were obtained from three selected areas within the university and pathogenic bacteria were identified using morphological and biochemical characteristics. In addition, antibiotic susceptibility testing for the most predominant pathogenic isolate; Staphylococcus aureus was done using disc diffusion method on Mueller Hinton agar. Among 120 swab samples collected from handrails in the 3 locations, only 40 (33.3%) were positive for pathogenic bacterial contamination. Handrail surfaces in Makerere university main library were more contaminated (13.4%) than the rest of the study areas. Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant pathogenic bacterial species (27.5%) and coagulase negative Staphylococcus species were the least isolated (2.5%). Results on antibiotic susceptibility testing indicated that S. aureus showed that all isolates were susceptible to Vancomycin (100%), Ampicillin (84.9%), Augmentin (81.8%), Cefuroxime (69.7%), Cotrimoxazole (66.7%) and lastly Tetracycline (6.1%). The study revealed that pathogenic bacterial contamination levels were low posing a less risk of infection to the users. Additionally, study demonstrated a moderate level of resistance to commonly used antibodies. A more complex study using molecular techniques would be required to identify genes responsible for antimicrobial resistance patterns of Staphylococcus aureus species that were isolated.
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    Environmental contamination with antimicrobial resistant pathogenic bacteria and cryptococcus spp Isolated from pigeon and marabou Stork faecal matter in Mulago hospital, Kampala
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Kiiza, Godfrey
    Background: Environmental contamination with pathogenic microorganisms in routine medical care settings poses an increased risk of health care associated infections through cross-transmission as most outdoor hospital environment has been found to be an underestimated vital reservoir for certain pathogens. Antimicrobial resistance can complicate treatment and lead to poor management and prognostic outcomes of patients. Objective: The study was carried out to determine the existence of antimicrobial and antifungal resistant pathogenic microorganisms in faecal matter of pigeons and marabou stork birds that dwell and feed from Mulago hospital environment. Method: Specimens (n=150) of faecal matter were collected aseptically and analyzed in the laboratory. Colony characteristics and Gram technique were used to differentiate the organisms. Biochemical tests were done to confirm the species of the bacteria and Cryptococcus organisms. Sensitivity testing was done on the isolates using the disc diffusion method. Results: Pathogenic organisms were recovered from 92.4% of the specimens. The isolates were: E.coli37 (24.67%), Klebsiella pneumoniae 5 (3.33%), Staphylococcus aureus 8 (5.33%), Coagulase negative Staphylococcusspp43 (28.67%), Candida spp13 (8.67%), Citrobacter spp34 (22.67%), Proteus spp2 (1.33%) and Acinetobacter spp 1 (0.67%). Samples from Marabou stork generally had slightly more isolates than samples from pigeons. All E.coli isolates were susceptible to Cefotaxime, Amoxicillin/Clavulanic Acid, Ceftriaxone, Ciprofloxacin, Chloramphenicol, Amikacin, Doripenem, and Imipenem. Some isolates were resistant to Trimethoprim (10%), Gentamicin (70%) and Ampicilin (10%). E.coli isolates from marabou stork were susceptible to all antibiotics. Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates from both marabou storks and pigeons were susceptible to all antibiotics. All Staphylococcus aureus isolates were susceptible to Cefoxitin and Gentamicin. 83.3% of the isolates were resistant Clindamycin, Oxacillin and Tetracycline. 16.7% were resistant to Penicillin, Ciprofloxacin and Ceftriaxone, 66.7% were resistant to Erythromycin and 33.3% were resistant to Vancomycin and Trimethoprim. Conclusion: Since a high proportion of samples had positive cultures, the access of the hospital environment by these pathogen carrying birds should be controlled. Attention should also be given to the outdoor hospital environment as potential habour for pathogens which could be transmitted to the hospital users. There is need to develop national surveillance of antibiotic- resistant organisms and also consider pigeons and marabou storks a risk species for spreading in the hospital environment antimicrobial resistant organisms
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    E. Coli contamination of consumable ice sold in Nakasero and Kololo Central Kampala City
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Mukomba, Jonan
    A survey on the microbial safety of consumable ice is a study held to assess the potential presence of hazardous microorganisms in both the ice and the consumables in which it dwells at a given point in time. Ice water source hygiene and its handling practices at food serving premises are the two aspects curtailing its major causes of contamination. Examining microbial quality of consumable ice, revealing the cause of contamination if any and awareness creation about the possible health effects to consumers. The multiple tube procedure involved the analysis of melted ice samples under enrichment medium i.e., Lauryl tryptose broth in which coliforms presence was detected basing on gas or bubble formation under a Durham tube due to the fermentation of lactose by the indicator organisms. A gram stain of the colonies followed to specify the organisms present. Of the 25 samples collected 3 were used as positive controls, samples C, M, O, and S were not contaminated due to no gas formation both with in 24 and 48 hours of incubation under tryptose broth medium. A, E, J, L, N, Q and R showed gas formation earlier with in 24hours hence contaminated. B, D, F, G, H, I, K, O, P, T, and U showed bubble formation after 24hours of incubation hence considered contaminated as well In conclusion E. Coli being the confirmed indicator organism implies that water sources are prone to faecal contamination and a sincerest conclusion that poor sewage channelling would be the root cause of the poor water quality. It was recommended that more time probably twelve months should be given to students for studies of such great health impact as this so as to check on the trend of compliance to the corrective actions that will have been put in place. A closer look at the quality control and assurance means of water treatment plants should be emphasized by the bureau of standards prior to licensing their operation
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    Isolation and identification of lactic acid bacteria from spontaneous whey and curd to be used as potential sources of starter cultures in Yogurt production process
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Zziwa, Kenneth
    The study was conducted to isolate, identify and characterize the lactic acid bacteria present in spontaneous whey and curd. Lactic acid bacteria were isolated from the spontaneous whey and curd samples by serial dilution, and then cultured on MRS agar. The morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics and sugar fermentation pattern were employed to identify lactic acid bacteria into different genera. The isolates from both whey and curd were identified as rods/cocci. All the isolates were Gram positive, catalase negative and exhibited negative pattern of citrate utilization, indole production, urease activity, NH3 production from arginine. In this study, 13 isolates were obtained from both samples, 6 isolates were rod-shaped and 7 isolated were cocci-shaped. These were categorized as putative genus Streptococci (cocci- shaped) and genus Lactobacillus (rod-shaped). The total bacterial counts of both samples were substantially significant and almost of the same range. The bacterial count in whey ranged from 2.51 × 107 to 1.1 × 109 cfu ml-1 while curd bacterial count ranged from 2.41 × 107 to 1.19 × 109 cfu g-1. This study indicates spontaneous whey and curd as potential sources of lactic acid bacteria which when characterized further to establish their species using the molecular biology technologies and perfected might have an immense potential in producing quality yoghurt.
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    Prevalence of extended spectrum β-Lactamase producing Escherichia coli and it’s antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in effluents from Mulago National Referral Hospital
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Seruwu, Victor
    This was a cross sectional study carried out from March to April 2019 at Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala district. Samples of effluents from accessible channels of Mulago National Referral Hospital wards were collected in the morning and evening Background Extended Spectrum Beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli have become an emerging global health threat and are associated with high mortality (WHO, 2014). Production of Beta-lactamase enzymes that hydrolyze the β-lactam ring is a major resistance mechanism for several Gram-negative bacteria including Enterobacteriaceae such as E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Pseudomonas aeruginosa among others Materials and methods This cross sectional study was conducted between March – May, 2019. Sampling was consecutive from the different ward sewage channels, a total of 100 samples were collected and tested for phenotypic ESBL production using synergy test using Ceftazidime-clavulanic acid and Cefotaxime-clavulanic acid. Results Results showed 100% resistance and 0% susceptibility to both Tetracycline and Ampicillin whereas Ciprofloxacin had 66% susceptibility and 34% resistance, Nalidixic acid had 59% susceptibility and 41% resistance, and Gentamycin had 60% susceptibility and 40% resistance. The results also showed that the prevalence of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing E. coli was 50% (n=100) when using Cefotaxime-Clavulanic acid combination while the prevalence of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing E. coli was 49% (n=100) when using Ceftazidime-Clavulanic acid combination. Conclusion This study revealed a high prevalence of ESBL producing E. coli from Mulago National Referral Hospital and high levels of resistance to third generation cephalosporins specifically Ceftazidime and Cefotaxime. In addition to undertaking appropriate infection control measures, there is urgent need for formulation of an antibiotic policy in Uganda to prevent spread of these organisms. This also calls for continuous monitoring and reporting of the presence of such organisms in order to ensure rational and judicious use of antibiotics by clinicians.