School of Biosciences Collection

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    Absence of inter-hall sports competitions for the disabled in Makerere University.
    (Makerere University, 2023-11) Malikisi, Thomas
    In a quest to explore the experiences of students with disabilities and their involvement in sports activities at Makerere University, this research embarked on an insightful journey. The study, rooted in a survey research design, engaged a diverse group of participants. Forty-six students with disabilities from various halls of residence and one dedicated sports coach constituted the focal point of this research endeavor. Fifty four percent (54%) of the students participated in a range of sports, including goalball, athletics, football, volleyball, and netball with 11% engaging in interhall sports competitions. While 67% of the students expressed an earnest interest in inter-hall sports, a whopping 72% believed that the University's efforts to promote awareness and accessibility of adapted sports were wanting. The positive impact of sports participation shone through, with 96% of students reporting benefits to their physical and mental health. Physical rewards, social connections, fitness enhancements, self-acceptance, and even the simple joy of competition were among the cherished rewards of participation. Nearly half of the students (46%) encountered negative attitudes, discrimination, and segregation during sports activities. They faced a barrage of challenges, from inaccessible facilities to financial constraints and injuries sustained in sports. Despite the challenges, the desire to participate was strong. Motivation came from personal passion, peer influence, and the recognition of the physical, mental, and social benefits of sports. Support and encouragement from coaches, parents, and friends played a pivotal role in nurturing this motivation. The students with disability’s roadmap to a more inclusive and vibrant sports community included accessible facilities, tailored training programs, and specialized equipment, enhanced awareness campaigns, ongoing sensitization efforts, and the organization of adapted inter-hall sports competitions that accommodate diverse needs and abilities.
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    Abundance and distribution of Cyathea manniana in kalinzu central forest reserve, southwestern Uganda.
    (Makerere University, 2021-05-05) Akankwasa, Mark
    This study was conducted in Kalinzu Central Forest Reserve, Southwestern Uganda, to assess the abundance and distribution of C. manniana in primary and secondary compartments of this forest reserve. Abundance or population size of C. manniana in these forest compartments is influenced by both abiotic factors such as moisture and light intensity; and anthropogenic activities like tree logging. Previous researches carried out in Kalinzu Forest Reserve have failed to address the concept of population status of C. manniana but instead they have primarily focused on the identification of this species. Systematic analysis of abundance and distribution of C. manniana was done in Kalinzu Forest Reserve, where principal focus was centered on discovering the variation of these parameters (abundance and distribution) in valleys and on slopes of primary and secondary compartments of this forest reserve. A sampling technique was employed to collect abundance data of C. manniana, 12 plots (each 50mx50m) were marked and 6 plots of these were in the valley and other 6 plots on slope of primary forest; similar number of plots of same area size were marked in the valley and on slope of secondary forest. 468 and 175 individuals of C. manniana were counted in primary and secondary forest plots respectively. Population density was computed and DBH of the counted C. manniana was measured. T- tests for population density were run using SPSS software. Analysis revealed statistically significant difference in population density of C. manniana between valleys and slopes and between primary and secondary forests except between valley and slope of secondary forest; DBH class distributions revealed bell- shaped and irregular shaped population structure patterns hence an indicator of poor population/ regeneration status of C. manniana. These findings on population density and structure provided a revelation for urgency in population restoration and conservation of C. manniana in Kalinzu Forest Reserve.
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    Abundance and diversity of soil macro fauna in the different agricultural systems in kamira sub-county Luwero district.
    (Makerere University, 2021-05-18) Ssango, Ronald
    Different agricultural systems exert different impacts on soil macrofauna abundance and diversity due to different management systems employed. Agricultual systemS assesed included coffee plantation, maize garden, potato garden, cattle farm, banana plantation and uncultivated field. Some soil macrofauna migrate into favourable habitats, some die due to use of chemicals.
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    The abundance of BRUSSONETIA PAPYRIFERA (l.) L'hér ex vent. in Mabira forest central reserve
    (Makerere University, 2022-03-31) Bwengye, James
    Mabira Forest Central Reserve is currently undergoing increasing coverage of an invasive species, Brussonetia papyrifera, that contributes to biodiversity loss in the forest reserve. Several studies have shown that B. papyrifera has the capacity to reduce the abundance of native vegetation by supressing the regeneration and growth of resident vegetation. This study aimed at documenting the abundance of Brussonetia papyrifera in the Buffer and Production Zones of Mabira Forest Central Reserve. The study sites were the Buffer and Production Zones. Systematic sampling was employed in this study. The study used belt transects of 1km and plots of 10m by 10m were laid in each zone. Within each plot, the trees were identified and recorded with the help of an NFA guide and the Makerere University Herbarium. DBH was measured using a tape measure and recorded. The results showed that the density of Brussonetia papyrifera was higher in the Production Zone (874 stems/ha) than in the Buffer Zone (274 stems/ha). The relative density also of B.papyrifera was higher in the Production zone(28%) than in the Buffer zone (8%).This was attributed in part due to the fact that the Production zone had a lower species richness as compared to the Buffer zone .Overall the population structure of Brusssonetia papyrifera in the Buffer Zone formed an inverse J shaped curve indicating a good seedling recruitment and sapling development potential whereas that in the Production zone formed an almost inverse -J- shaped curve with a few anomalies that were attributed to the anthropogenic activities that occur in this zone. Mabira Forest Central Reserve stands a high risk of losing its native species in the years to come given the increase of Brussonetia papyrifera. To avert such a calamity, Control measures for the population of Brussonetia papyrifera should be introduced. Further studies are recommended in studying the effects of B. papyrifera in Mabira Forest Central Reserve
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    Abundance of Lantana Camara in West Bugwe Central Forest Reserve, Busia District
    (Makerere University, 2024) Naamara, Moses
    This research study was carried out in West Bugwe Central Forest Reserve which is found in Eastern Uganda and this reserve is 21 km from Busia town. This study aimed to assess the abundance of Lantana camara within West Bugwe Central Forest Reserve and using random sampling method, 64 plots each measuring 10 ×10 meters were established and sampled to conduct the study. The primary objective of this research was to quantify the presence of Lantana camara and evaluate it's potential impacts on the reserve ecosystems. My findings revealed a significant difference in the abundance of L. camara in the two sampled regions of the forest reserve but with the abundance of L. camara being higher in the disturbed forest region. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant association between the percentage cover of L. camara found in the disturbed forest region and that found in the undisturbed forest region of the reserve. The higher abundance in the disturbed forest region could have been probably because of the high light penetrations that spiked Lantana camara spread in the disturbed sections. Hence, urgent need to create and implement a management plan to curb further spread in future. Further studies on how Lantana camara biomass can be anaerobically digested to produce biogas used for cooking and electricity generation will be of paramount importance. Also, oil extraction from Lantana camara seeds to produce biodiesel which is eco-friendly can be adopted. Restoration projects using indigenous trees is needed as I thoroughly observed that Lantana camara was absent under the indigenous tree canopies hence a control means.
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    Abundance of wild Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) around cages at source of the Nile fish farm: implication for disease transmission between farmed and wild fishes
    (Makerere University, 2022-12) Mayambala, Paddy
    Although tilapia culture in cage fish farming systems in Uganda presents a steady rise in growth the entire sector is a subject to the different emerging tilapiine diseases and pathogens which have so far been reported at different fish farms by farmers and researchers to cause significant stock depreciation through increased fish mortalities arising from disease and pathogen infestation to the cultured stocks. Currently, with the increased intensification, production and commercialization of the fish culture systems, there have markedly been increased concerns of rampant disease outbreaks among cultured tilapiine stocks pertaining the outbreak and emergence of bacterial, fungal and viral diseases as well as parasite infestation which has hindered investment, thus curtailing unimpeded production and extension of the sector. Despite the conducive tropical climate that favors fish farming in the tropics, limited, if any, focus has been invested as regards fish health and the subsequent biosecurity programs meant to protect fish from contracting infections therefore inferring increased disease infestation and hindered sector growth. Attention as pertains fish health and biosecurity measures have long been focused on the indirect modes of disease and pathogen transmission (transfer of infectious agents from reservoirs to the fish hosts by inanimate objects [e.g., vehicles and PPE], or animate intermediaries). Despite the practice of such measures to combat disease infestation onto the farmed stocks, the prevalence of diseases and pathogens is persistent thus farmers and researchers have still reported increased cases of disease outbreak among farmed fish stocks. However, the design, construction and positioning of the cages systems in water bodies infers to easily permit the interaction of wild and farmed fish stocks thus facilitating direct transmission of disease pathogens and parasites from the wild to the farmed fish stocks or vice versa. The results of this study validated that wild fish populations lied in proximities of fish cages and are capable of transmitting infectious agents to farmed tilapiine stocks or vice versa. Therefore, besides the indirect modes of transfer of infectious agents that are affirmed to attribute to the rampant disease prevalence amongst farmed tilapiines, the results of this study call for further interventions by researchers and farmers as regards prevention of direct disease and pathogen transfer modes between wild and farmed tilapiines. Finally, the review contains suggestions for future research that will fill gaps needed to effectively prevent, manage and combat rampant disease incidences on fish farms.
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    Accessibility, quality and competing uses of silver cyprinid (Rastrineobola argentea) from selected markets of Kampala and Masindi.
    (Makerere University, 2021-05-07) Mukimba, Sharon
    Silver cyprinid (Rastrineobola argentea) is a small pelagic fish with several competing uses, and ranks third of the top three commercial fish species landed from Lake Victoria. This study investigated the level of contaminants, competing uses and accessibility of silver cyprinid in two markets from Kampala (Kalerwe and Kibuye) and Masindi main market. In each of these markets, a 1.0 kg sample was picked from 18 traders, and analyzed for physical contaminants by sorting and weighing them using a weighing balance. Data were collected on origin, quantities of silver cyprinid received per week and uses. Data were collected using a questionnaire administered to individual traders. Physical contaminants included sand (0.05, 0.01 0.00) kg, mayflies (0.03, 0.016, 0.01) kg and snail shells (0.004, 0.02, 0.03) kg from Kalerwe, Kibuye and Masindi main markets respectively. Snail shells were most dominant than mayflies; Kampala markets obtained silver cyprinid from Lake Victoria (Kasenyi, Kiyindi and Kikondo) whereas Masindi main market received consignments from Lake Albert (Panyimur, Wanseko, Kabolwa). Kibuye and Kalerwe markets had sold larger quantities of silver cyprinid sold per week (i.e., about 1000 kg) than Masindi main market where 870 kg. Most of the purchased silver cyprinid was intended for human consumption (95.5% in Kalerwe, 94.4% in Kibuye and 96% in Masindi main market), the rest (4.5%, 5.6% and 3.9%) being for animal feed production. Over 90% of the silver cyprinid in Kampala and Masindi main markets is intended for human consumption. Less than5% of silver cyprinid in these markets is for animal feed production. The silver cyprinid sold in Kalerwe, Kibuye and Masindi main markets contains physical contaminants such as sand, mayflies and snail shells which deter it suitability for the intended uses (human consumption or animal feed production). The volumes of silver cyprinid purchased per week are higher in Kampala markets than in Masindi main market suggesting better accessibility in Kampala than Masindi. Therefore, quality control of silver cyprinid should be emphasized right from harvesting through processing to marketing, to ensure minimal quality deterioration. Fishers and processors of silver cyprinid need to be sensitized about the sources of contaminants and how they get into the fish during processing. Additionally, traders should set mechanisms to consistently demand for quality x silver cyprinid and probably reject adulterated products with sand, shells or mayflies. This approach will create feed back to the processors leasing to hygienic processing of the products. To sustain high proportion of silver cyprinid meant for human consumption, emphasis should be put on maintaining quality processing, handling and storage.
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    The activity of CENTELLA ASIATICA extract against STAPHYLOCOCCUS Epidermidis.
    (Makerere University, 2022) Tukamushaba, Bruce
    Staphylococcus epidermidis with the highest percentage has the prominent role among coagulase-negative Staphylococci that is the most important reason of clinical infections and this is due to various virulence factors and unique features. Centella asiatica is a clonal herbaceous creeper belonging to the family Umbellifere (Apiceae) and is found mostly in moist places of tropical and subtropical countries where it is used as a traditional medicine, it contains active components such as; alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and triterpenoids that give it it’s medicinal properties. Many studies have shown that the plant has several biological and pharmacological activities but there is no documentation of the result of the study of the activity of Centella asiatica extract against Staphylococcus epidermidis. The general objective of this study was to determine the activity of Centella asiatica ethanolic extract against Staphylococcus epidermidis. The activity of the ethanolic extract of Centella asiatica against Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 1228 was determined using the Agar well diffusion method and the experiment was done in triplicates using Vancomycin as the positive control and 4% DMSO as the negative control. The highest concentration of the ethanolic extract of Centella asiatica did not show any activity towards the Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 1228 and so did the negative control (4% DMSO), while the positive control (Vancomycin) showed a greater antibacterial activity against the test strain with a mean zone of inhibition of 27mm. A number of factors could have affected the activity of the ethanolic extract of Centella asiatica against Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC1228 in this study. This study could be the beginning of further research on the activity of Centella asiatica extracts against Staphylococcus epidermidis by taking into consideration the extraction preparation, mechanism of action, antimicrobial assay and the other different parameters that could have affected this study.
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    Activity of Lantana camara and Aframomum angustifolium Streptococcus extracts on Pneumoniae and Klebsiella Pneumoniae.
    (Makerere University, 2021-04-23) Nakayima, Agnes
    The major aim of this study was to examine the invitro antimicrobial activity of Lantana camara and Aframomum angustifolium extracts on Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae are microorganisms responsible for pneumonia, an upper respiratory tract infection. Symptoms include: nasal obstruction, sore throat, tonsillitis, sinusitis and common cold. In Uganda (2015), 1.72 million cases of the infections were estimated to have occurred. Some bacteria strains have acquired antibiotic resistance therefore infections cannot be reliably treated. Antibiotics are beyond the reach of a common man since they are expensive therefore many people have resorted to the use of herbs without validation hence the need for scientific study of traditional plants with medicinal value. The two-study plant material were collected from Iganga and taken to Makerere herbarium for validation. The plant materials were cleaned, air dried and pulverized. crude compounds were extracted by maceration under ethanol. Extracts were concentrated by rotary evaporation. Agar well diffusion was used to determine the diameter of inhibition of the different plant part extracts against the bacteria on Muella-Hinton agar. Serial broth dilution was used to determine minimum inhibitory concentration of the plant extracts. Tests were carried in triplicates. The data obtained was analyzed using MS excel and the R package version Rx644.0.3. Two-way Anova was used to compare the different means(p<2e-16). This study shows that a combination Lantana camara and Aframomum angustifolium is a potential drug for the treatment of pneumonia infections. However, in low concentrations of 0.065g/l, there was no effect of plant extracts on the bacteria strains. Therefore, a combination of the two plant extracts can be used as effective drugs in high concentrations of 0.5g/ml. Individual plant extracts were more effective on Streptococcus pneumoniae than Klebsiella pneumoniae. There was a significant effect of each of the drug extracts in high concentration of 0.5g/ml on each of the bacteria strains.
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    Acute toxicity of Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst ethanolic stem-bark extract on winstar albino rats
    (Makerere University, 2025-11-28) MARTIN, MWIJUKYE
    Acute Oral Toxicity Evaluation of Ethanolic Stem-Bark Extract of Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst in Wistar Albino Rats Chronic kidney disease and acute kidney injury represent major public health challenges in Uganda and across Africa, where access to conventional renal-protective drugs remains limited and costly. Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst (Apiaceae), commonly known as the carrot tree, is widely used in Ugandan traditional medicine for various ailments, including as a diuretic, but its safety profile has not been scientifically established. The present study aimed to evaluate the acute oral toxicity of the ethanolic stem-bark extract of S. araliacea and to determine its median lethal dose (LD50) in Wistar albino rats. The extract was prepared by 96% ethanol maceration of shade-dried stem bark collected in Wakiso District, Uganda. Acute toxicity was assessed following OECD Guideline 425 (Up-and-Down Procedure). Male Wistar albino rats (200–220 g) received single oral doses of 2000 mg/kg or 5000 mg/kg body weight, with a concurrent vehicle control group. Animals were observed for 14 days for mortality, clinical signs, body weight changes, organ weights, gross pathology, and histopathology of liver, kidneys, and stomach. No mortality occurred at any dose up to the limit dose of 5000 mg/kg, resulting in an LD50 > 5000 mg/kg. Transient clinical signs (mild lethargy, increased respiration, abnormal defecation, and partial sleep) were observed within the first 24 hours but resolved completely. An initial body weight reduction was followed by full recovery and normal weight gain. Gross examination revealed no lesions, and organ-to-body weight ratios were comparable to controls. Histopathological analysis showed no significant alterations in liver or kidneys at either dose. Mild gastric epithelial sloughing was noted only at 5000 mg/kg, indicating localized irritation. The ethanolic stem-bark extract of Steganotaenia araliacea is practically non-toxic acutely when administered orally to rats (GHS Category 5 or unclassified). These findings provide the first preclinical safety data supporting the relative short-term safety of this traditionally used plant and lay the foundation for further sub-chronic toxicity, phytochemical, and efficacy studies targeting renal disorders.
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    Aflatoxin contamination of sliver cyprind(mukene) sold in shops and markets in Kikoni.
    (Makerere University., 2023-08-31) Rwecungura, Jamin
    The Silver Cyprinid R.argentea (Mukene) provides a highly nourishing and reasonably priced source of protein. After Nile tilapia and Nile perch, mukene is one of Uganda's top three commercial fish species. However, there is improper handling and storage of mukene which enhances the growth of harmful fungi that degrade fish quality, posing health hazards to customers. little attention has been paid to the issue. In this study, the aflatoxin and fungal contamination of silver cyprinid (Mukene) sold in Kikoni shops and markets was established. For this study, semi quantification of aflatoxins was done to establish the degree of intensity of the mycotoxin present in silver cyprinid. For assessment of the fungal contamination direct surface plating was used to identify and enumerate the colonies. Silver cyprinid was found contaminated with several fungal species namely, Aspergillus spp, Fusarium spp, Trichoderma spp, Rhizopus spp, Penicillium spp, Mucor sp and Neurospora spp. Their concentration of fungi in the silver cyprinid samples ranged from 400 to 4500 CFU/g with a median of 1700 CFU/g. All samples were contaminated with aflatoxins however 75% (n=12) of them had high-intensity (> 10 ppb) of aflatoxins. Traders kept the fish in dirty sacks laid on the ground. Some fish traders observed standard operating procedures by putting on aprons (47%) but none had hand gear while handling fish and money. Which indicated compromised hygienic standards. High concentration of fungi and high prevalence of high intensity of aflatoxin can be attributed to poor post-harvest practices by fishermen and high rainfall and floods in Uganda. This is proven by a high average moisture content of the mukene found in this study of 14.3 ± 2.03% (18.2%, 11%). In conclusion, silver cyprinid sold in Kikoni was therefore contaminated with fungi which led to a high prevalence of high-intensity aflatoxins. Traders who deal in mukene should improve personal hygiene and sanitation when handling and displaying the fish for sale. Fishermen and other value-chain stakeholders should engage in better post-harvest practices and also be sensitized about the threats of aflatoxins in food and feeds.
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    The After effects of Covid-19 pandemic on the livelihood of fish value chain Actors in Rhino Camp Sub County in Madi Okollo district
    (Makerere university, 2023-07-05) Maguma, Alex
    COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization in 2020 with countries putting up several measures to mitigate and flatten the curve of hospitalizations and death from travel bans to home confinements and local lockdowns. This pandemic created health and economic crises, leading to increased incidences of poverty and food crises, especially in both agriculture and fisheries in many developing nations including Uganda. The specific objectives of this study were to assess the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on the catch per unit effort (CPUE) of small-scale fishers and to determine what factors could influence the volume of their catch during this time of the pandemic. Moreover, this also investigated the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on fishers and their families. To do that we surveyed N = 302 small-scale fishers around the Albert Nile using a semi-structured questionnaire and inquire about the impact of the COVID-19 on their fishing operation, catch, fishing costs, and their families. The collected socioeconomic variables, including emotional responses to the pandemic, were then related to the CPUE and the volume of catch. The results show that fishers were highly affected by the pandemic due to the lockdown policy imposed in the fishing villages during the earlier phases of restrictions by the government. Fishers were affected in terms of the volume of their catch, also fishing costs, and emotions as they were also frustrated due to the impacts of the hard lockdown. The restricted fishing access was found to have imparted and major setback on the fishing operations of fishers and the same was experienced also by the middlemen given the low fish price and reduced mobility of the fish traders. COVID-19 also impacted the fishers, and their families through lack of mobility, food inadequacy, travel restrictions, and their children’s education.
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    Amelioration potential of spent mushroom compost on physiochemical properties of heavy metal polluted soils in Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2022) Bawoomya, Audrey Christine
    Heavy metal pollution of soils due to wastes from mining activities remains a global challenge. In Uganda, mining activity in Kasese has led to extensive land being left unutilized due to the poor quality of soils. Several studies have been undertaken to establish affordable methods of remediating the soils including addition of organic amendments to soil, in place of the conventional ones that are more expensive and impractical in large scale remediation efforts. This research was conducted to study the potential of spent mushroom compost to ameliorate the physiochemical properties of heavy metal polluted soil from the tailings in Kasese. Bidens pilosa was used as a test plant to observe plant response. Heavy metal polluted soil was obtained from Kasese tailings. 4kg of soil and SMC of concentrations 5%, 15% and 30% were added to pots respectively, in triplicates. Negative and positive controls inclusive. These were used to grow the test plant for 30 days. The effect of SMC on the physiochemical properties of the soil was determined through soil analysis before and after the experiment. Changes in microbial diversity were determined using the Total Plate count method and plant response by determining percentage germination, plant height and leaf area. The results of this study suggest SMC had a significant effect on the soil, that increased with increasing SMC concentration however, the changes were not effective enough to allow seedling establishment. The pH of the soil remained <2. Concentrations of Iron, Copper, Nickel and Cobalt reduced significantly. There was no germination in the treated pots, including the negative control. The microbial diversity changed but with minimal variance across the treatments. The research established that SMC does not efficiently ameliorate the physiochemical characteristics of heavy metal polluted soils from Kasese and would not be recommended for remediation processes.
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    Anaerobic digestion of domestic wastewater sewage sludge to produce biogas on a small scale
    (Makerere University, 2023-11) Egessa, Brian
    Depletion of fossil fuels and environment deterioration has led to extensive research and development activities to explore renewable energy such as biogas generation from anaerobic digestion of waste for power generation. Anaerobic digestion of waste to generate methane (CH4) has been proven to be a very promising alternative to waste disposal and a valuable technology for renewable energy recovery. Although anaerobic digestion is not proven to be a feasible and economically viable technology for renewable energy generation of wastes in countries like Uganda, it calls for attention for its wide adoption throughout the country. The potential of using the biogas as energy source has long been widely recognized and current techniques are being developed to upgrade quality and to enhance energy use. Biogas is composed of methane (55–75%), carbon dioxide (25–45%), nitrogen (0–5%), hydrogen (0–1%), hydrogen sulfide (0–1%), and oxygen (0–2%). The sewage sludge contains mainly proteins, sugars, detergents, phenols, and lipids. Sewage sludge also includes toxic and hazardous organic and inorganic pollutants sources. The digestion of municipal sewage sludge (MSS) occurs in three basic steps: acidogen, methanogens, and methanogens. This research extensively reviews the principles and current optimization techniques associated with anaerobic digestion and suggests possible areas where improvements could be made, the process parameters and their interaction, the design methods, the biogas utilization. Here The batch type of reactor was operated at room temperature varying from 25 to 38 ◦C with a fixed hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 30 days. The digesters were operated at different organic feedings of domestic sewage inoculum and sludge. The maximum biogas production of 430 ml. The maximum reduction of total solids (TS) (13.84%), VS (3.69%) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (11803.57 mg/L). The DSS contains low nitrogen and has carbon- to-nitrogen (C/N) ratios of around 40–70. The optimal C/N ratio for the AD should be between 25 and 35. C/N ratio of sludge in small-scale sewage plants is often low, so nitrogen can be added in an inorganic form (ammonia or in organic form) such as livestock manure, urea, or food wastes. Having reviewed the basic principles and techniques of the anaerobic digestion process, modelling concepts will be assessed to delineate the dominant parameters. Hydrolysis is recognized as rate-limiting step in the complex digestion process. The microbiology of anaerobic digestion is complex and delicate, involving several bacterial groups, each of them having their own optimum working conditions and possibly inhibited by several process parameters such as pH, alkalinity, concentration of free ammonia, hydrogen, sodium, potassium, heavy metals, volatile fatty acids, and others. To accelerate the digestion and enhance the production of biogas, various pre-treatments can be used to improve the rate-limiting hydrolysis. These treatments include mechanical, thermal, chemical, and biological interventions to the feedstock.
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    Analysis of anti-parasitic activity of citrus reticulata (mandarin orange plant) seed extracts on the sheep and goat hookworm, Bunostomum Trigonocephalum.
    (Makerere University, 2023-01-30) Ssekabira, Vianney S
    Gastro-intestinal helminthosis is one of the most devastating disorders affecting livestock production in Uganda leading to tremendous losses. This is because of ever increasing antihelminthic resistance in prevalent parasitic nematodes that triggers re-infection in susceptible hosts. Among goats and sheep, Bunostomum trigonocephalum has been identified as one of the most- prevalent causing prolonged disorders that are difficult to manage. An in-vitro study was therefore conducted from August to October, 2022 at Makerere University of Kampala district, Uganda to analyze the anti-parasitic activity of Citrus reticulata seed extracts on Bunostomum trigonocephalum. Under this, hydroethanolic extraction, flotation and faecal culture techniques were used to obtain crude seed extract and infective L3 larvae of the parasitic nematode respectively. Different concentrations of crude extract and ivermectin as positive control were prepared by serial dilutions and tested against these infective L3 stages. Water was used as the negative control. Least crude seed extract and ivermectin concentrations for occurence of mortality were considered as minimum concentrations required for immobilization and death of Bunostomum trigonocephalum infective L3. Percentage mortalities of Bunostomum trigonocephalum infective L3 were also determined from initial numbers of live L3 and from those that remained alive after treatments with different concentrations of Citrus reticulata crude seed extract, as well as ivermectin. Results from the un-paired t-test revealed significant differences in average percentage mortalities for Bunostomum trigonocephalum infective L3 with different concentrations of Citrus reticulata crude seed extract and ivermectin (P<0.05). Minimum concentration for immobilization and mortality of Bunostomum trigonocephalum infective L3 was 2mg/ml. This therefore shows potential anti-nematocidal activity exhibited by some bioactive secondary metabolites present in Citrus reticulata seed. This also proves that only least concentrations of Citrus reticulata seed are required for use as effective antihelminthics against parasitic nematodes.
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    Analysis of Antibiotics Residue in Raw Cow Milk in Randomly Selected Farms in Moyo District, Northern Uganda.
    (Makerere University, 2025-07-15) ANZO, SIMON
    Antibiotic are commonly used veterinary medications but these residues especially in raw milk as in this study represent a significant public health concern due to their potential to causing allergic reactions, disrupt human gut micro biota, and most importantly contributing to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This study aimed to analyze antibiotic residues in raw cow milk from randomly selected farms in Moyo District, Northern Uganda, and to investigate the correlation between antibiotic usage patterns and residue levels. Data collected from farmer surveys revealed that beta-lactams and tetracyclines are the most commonly used antibiotics, with many farmers lacking adequate knowledge of proper administration and withdrawal periods. Milk samples were screened using FTIR spectroscopy, detecting residues of both antibiotic classes in all samples. Residue levels ranged from 0.000737 to 0.024131 µg/kg for beta-lactams and 0.000131 to 0.123993 µg/kg for tetracyclines in farms that did not observe withdrawal periods, compared to significantly lower levels in farms that did. Though statistical analysis confirmed a strong, significant association (p < 0.05) between failure to observe withdrawal periods and elevated residue contamination, the residue levels were below the global Maximum Residue Levels but continued mismanagement could lead to future consequences. The study therefore highlighted critical gaps in farmer awareness and residue monitoring, emphasizing the urgent need for targeted interventions to improve antibiotic stewardship in order to ensure milk safety, and mitigate AMR risks in rural parts of Uganda that are mostly neglected.
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    Analysis of papain from different varieties of papaya plant latex
    (Makerere University, 2022-10-30) Mawanda, David Mark
    Papain is a proteolytic enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of protein. It shows several biological functions in plants and animals. It is used in many industries like food, leather, detergents, meat processing, and medical application like blood coagulation, fibrinolysis, and digestion processes. The present study focused on the evaluation of proteolytic activity from latexes of three varieties of papaya grown in Kampala namely Solo, Red Royale, and Sunrise. To study the protein concentration of various papaya latexes, three different varieties of papaya latex were collected from a papaya farm. Papain was isolated from the latex. The estimation of protein was done by Lowry’s method. The protease enzyme was assessed by the Kunitz method, with appropriate modifications. Protease-controlling parameters were studied by assessing Temperature, pH, and Substrate concentration. The solo variety showed good activity followed by Red Royale and Sunrise varieties. An innovative aspect of the current study helps to determine the protease activity in the different latexes of plants that could positively affect the local economy.
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    Analysis of pesticide residues in Citrullus lanatus Thunb. and Capsicum annuum L. in Bwaise market
    (Makerere University, 2022-12) Amuge , Sheila Marion
    A study was conducted to analyse pesticide residues in C. lanatus Thunb. (watermelon) and C. annuum L. (green pepper) in Bwaise market, Kampala. This was driven by the increased concern that heavily sprayed fruits and vegetables have pesticide residues at the time of consumption which have long term cumulative effects. In this regard a total of 18 fruits and vegetables were purchased from stalls at Bwaise market, packaged in sterile polythene and taken to the laboratory for extraction and analysis. Sample preparation and extraction was done using the multi-residue method extraction protocols for pyrethoids and organophosphorous pesticide residues. Quantification of pesticides done using gas chromatography. Identification of respective pesticides was done by comparison of retention times of the samples with that of the library spectrums of the pesticide standards. The data was analysed using R package, Excel spread sheets and graph and from this, T-tests, Dunnet’s multiple comparison test was drawn. Pyrethroid pesticides predominated the samples analysed and organophosphorous pesticides were absent in the green pepper samples analysed. In WMa Cypermethrin - 0.04760 mg/kg, Deltamethrin - 0.02694 mg/kg, Lambda Cyhalothrin - 0.02828 mg/kg and Diazinon - 0.02715. in WMb Cypermethrin - 0.01574mg/kg, Deltamethrin - 0.02462 mg/kg, Lambda Cyhalothrin 0.01896mg/kg, Diazinon - 0.02620 mg/kg, Malathion 0.01 mg/kg and Chlorpyrifos - 0.02699 mg/kg. WMc had Cypermethrin - 0.03341 mg/kg, Lambda Cyhalothrin - 0.028 mg/kg while the rest of the active chemicals were undetected. GPa had Cpermethrin - 0.01896 mg/kg, Deltamethrin - 0.02760 mg/kg and Lamda Cyhalothrin - 0.03883 mg/kg. Only Cypermethrin - 0.03502 mg/kg was detected in GPb. The pesticide residue levels detected were below the stipulated MRLs of; Chlorpyrifos 2.0 mg/kg, Cypermethrin 2.0 mg/kg, Deltamethrin 0.1 mg/kg for Capsicum annuum, Diazinon 0.02 mg/kg, Chlorpyrifos 0.05 mg/kg, Cypermethrin 0.2 mg/kg and Deltamethrin 0.05 mg/kg for Citrullus lanatus. with the exception of Diazinon 0.02715 mg/kg and 0.02620 mg/kg in the C. lanatus samples which was significantly higher than 0.02 mg/kg. The findings point to the need for continuous monitoring of pesticide contamination in foods throughout the country so as to determine their hazard levels and safety for human consumption
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    Analyzing Oxytocin levels using liver tissue from fasting mice.
    (Makerere University, 2022-10-18) Kamulegeya, Mark
    Oxytocin is a central nervous system neuropeptide hormone, which is composed of nine amino acids. The synthesis of oxytocin begins in the hypothalamus, where the paraventricular nucleus and supra-optic neurons express high levels of oxytocin, which is released from the posterior pituitary gland. Whereas "Fasting" may be defined as voluntary abstinence from food and drink for specified, recurring periods of time, with the fasting periods typically ranging from 12 hours to three weeks in humans. Hippocrates recommended fasting during sickness and was probably one of the first advocates of fasting for medical purposes. There exists limited information showing a direct relationship between oxytocin synthesis and fasting. In order to determine the change that occur in oxytocin levels during fasting, Lnpep a gene that is involved in its metabolism in the liver was considered. Its levels of expression were to be monitored under different conditions. Data was obtained from the NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database; two datasets were selected for this study, (accession numbers GSE137385 and GSE130127). From the different GSEs, extrapolation of the following dataset information was done: run, assay type, library layout, organism, platform, strain, tissue and treatment. From GSE130127, selected were 9 runs beginning SRR89371 which is represented as X followed by the last 3 digits from each run as shown from (table 1) through the analysis of the results. In the first group AL had 3 samples (X153, X154,X155) , in the second group IF16h3wks 3 samples were selected (X158,X159,X160), in the third group IF24h3wks 3 samples were selected (X163,X164,X165) and only 3 samples were selected from GSE137385, the 3 runs beginning with SRR10112 which also was represented as X followed by the last 3 digits from each run as shown in, thus the fourth group 21fast 3 samples were selected (X565,X566,X567). A total of 12 samples were selected for comparing the different time points i.e (fasting for 21 hour a one day fast 21fast, fasting for 16 hours for 3 weeks IF16h3wks, fasting for 24 hours for 3 weeks) IF24h3wks and the fed condition 0 hours of fasting AL. The gene signatures exhibited by mice under ad libitum feeding (AL), mice that fasted for 21 hours(21fast), mice under intermitted fasting for 16 hours in 3 weeks (IF16h3wks) and mice under intermitted fasting for 24 hours in 3 weeks (IF24h3wks) indicate differentiation in gene expression according to the PCA, the abnormality seen in the 21fast may be due to the presence of the different mouse strains in the this group this resulted in the genes with expression levels significantly higher in C57BL/6J mice than in BALB/cJ mice and distinct clustering of experimental groups using heat map analysis. Even though common genes that are differentially expressed by in all fasting groups and AL are present, it can be further observed that a large number of differentially expressed genes are unique to either the 21fast or the IF24h3wks regimen. This showed that the longer the fasting time of the day the more genes are significantly expressed. Fasting resulted as expected in marked weight loss with reduction of abdominal circumference, which was more pronounced in the groups which was fasted longer. On the other side, Pilot data suggest that longer -term oxytocin administration may support weight loss in obese patients. These findings provided evidence that fasting longer could be similar to longer-term oxytocin administration. Since a particular level of oxytocin is attained when an individual fasts thus, as one fasts longer this dose of oxytocin is attained, thus bring about a similar effect observed in fasting and oxytocin administration. These results provide evidence that there is a direct relationship between fasting oxytocin synthesis levels in mice. It was noted that there is threshold oxytocin level which was observed in all fasting groups and this could be the required oxytocin level need to bring about the beneficial effects observed during fasting. However, this calls for further studies to monitor oxytocin synthesis using brain tissue as to understand which exact genes involved in its synthesis are up regulated and to what extent during different fasting conditions.
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    Antibacterial activity of Allium sativum extract on common upper respiratory tract infections
    (Makerere University, 2022-01-22) Muhumuza, Isaac
    Upper respiratory tract infections such as pharyngitis sinusitis, tonsillitis and pneumonia which contribute to the disease burden in Uganda are managed by use of antibiotics. This has caused increased antibiotic resistance among bacterial pathogens responsible for these infections. Garlic is one of the most widely used herbs with acclaimed medicinal potential and has been used to treat respiratory infections. Therefore, this study aimed at determining the antibacterial activity of both the indigenous and exotic garlic species of Allium Sativum family on representative pathogens Streptococcus pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Ethanolic extracts of Allium Sativum extracts were evaluated for phytochemicals and antibacterial activity against S. pneumoniae and K. pneumoniae. The exotic garlic extract was found to contain more saponins, Flavonoids and Alkaloids compared to the indigenous garlic ethanolic extract. Both exotic and indigenous garlic ethanolic extracts contained considerably equal amounts of phenolic compounds. However, the indigenous garlic ethanolic extract was also found to contain Tannins which was absent in exotic garlic ethanolic extract. The indigenous garlic extract showed a mean zone of clearance of 8mm and 8.5mm whereas the exotic garlic extract showed a mean zone of clearance of 8.5 and 9mm against S. pnemoniae and K. pneumoniae respectively. This was achieved using the Agar well diffusion method. However, using the broth dilution method on a 96 microtitre plate, both ethanolic garlic extracts showed the same value for both minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of 0.5 g/ml against both S. pneumonia and K. pneumoniae. This study showed that ethanolic extract of Allium sativum contain important and active phytochemical compounds which justify the need to consider it as having antibacterial properties that can be of relevance to pharmaceutical science.