Academic submissions (CoNAS)

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    Activity pattern and enclosure usage of black forest cobras (Naja melanoleuca) at Uganda Reptile Village (URV), Entebbe
    ( 2019-04) Kibuuka, Nelson
    This study was designed to investigate how the design of enclosures affects the activity budget of the forest cobras which have a very particular habitat choice and behavioral repertoire in the wild. Data was collected at Uganda Reptile Village on five forest cobras (Naja melanoleuca) of the same species to determine the overall daily activity patterns and usage of all available areas of their enclosure. Instantaneous scan sampling of the whole group of snakes during three periods each day (morning, midday and afternoon) allowed for changes in behaviour patterns to be assessed over time. Zone usage was analyzed using a modified Spread of Participation Index (SPI) and a Chi square test was used to analyze the data. The data revealed that the subjects did not use their enclosure evenly as some areas which provided resources were used significantly more than others. Significantly enhanced behavioral repertoires occurred in the “natural” zones of the enclosure and three grouped activity patterns (intense activity, moderate activity and inactivity) showed significant differences in performance between ‘natural’ and ‘artificial’ zones, and between times of day. Forest cobras spent approximately 40% of their time resting, 20% basking, 5% swimming and the remaining percentage feeding, vigilance and moving. Inactivity had a higher frequency than moderate and intense activity for the entire study time. The group spent around 60% of its time in only around 30% of the enclosure. Overall, enclosure design based on facets of natural ecology is important for the expression of a “wild-type” behaviour pattern in captive reptiles. This explains why forest cobras will actively choose biologically relevant areas of their enclosure. Therefore enclosure design has a profound influence on the behavioral activity budget and enclosure use of the snakes. It is suggested that alterations to reptile regime and management style of such specialized reptiles could help improve captive behavioral repertoires and enhance the display of such animals in captive facilities. The recommendation to improve enclosures for reptiles by providing ‘natural’ like zones is suggested which will make the enclosures mimic the wild habitats to ensure proper behaviour of the reptiles in ex-situ conservation.
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    Adaptive strategies of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus L.) to changing habitat
    (Makerere University, 2018-07-26) Akoth, Dorothy
    Environmental changes are some of the factors that affect fisheries and biological characteristics of fishes. The Nile tilapia has biological characteristics that enable it to continue existing under various stressful environmental conditions. However, limited studies have examined the influence of habitat shrinkage on the morphological parameters and feeding behaviour of the Nile tilapia. The study examined some of the biological characteristics of Nile tilapia in lakes Wamala and Victoria (Uganda) to provide an understanding of their response to changing habitat conditions due to climate variability and changes. A total of 64 archived specimens were used in the study. Diet data of O. niloticus from Lake Victoria was obtained from Njiru et al., 2008. The study observed significant morphological differences between Nile tilapia from the two lakes with specimens from Lake Victoria being larger than those from Lake Wamala. The eye depth, cheek depth, snout length, lower jaw length, lower jaw width and dorsal fin base length were the key morphological parameters that seemed to adjust faster to the changing environment. These differences were attributed either to genetic or environmental factors, which seemed to play a major role in influencing morphology of Nile tilapia populations. With regard to feeding, O. niloticus in both lakes are still phytoplanktivorous. Nonetheless, specimens from Lake Wamala have included more zooplankton and higher plant material whereas Lake Victoria dwelling specimens included insects and mollusks in the diet. The results reflect an adjustment to the available dietary components that occur in habitat specific conditions. Therefore, the Nile tilapia has the capacity to adjust appropriately under conditions created by climate variability and changes in order to adapt to such environments. Proper management of the fish species can sustain the fisheries of Lakes Wamala and Victoria.
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    Aflatoxin determination in traditional local brew (Malwa)
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Akol, Patrick
    Aflatoxin contamination is a common problem in developing countries, particularly in cereals and this poses a serious health risk to its consumers. Malwa is a traditional brew in Uganda whose cereal ingredients are prone to aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxin B1 is the most carcinogenic and very harmful to both humans and animals. This study was carried out to determine mould incidence and aflatoxin levels in malwa and its raw materials. Samples used in the study were collected from malwa point in Kikoni, Kampala and the other batch was obtained from a village in Mbale. Sample extraction for aflatoxin analysis was done using QuEChERS method and analysis by LC-MS/MS method, due to the high selectivity and sensitivity of the method. The moulds were determined by dilution plating method. Results obtained showed that no aflatoxins were detected in both the raw materials (flour, dough and roasted dough) and malwa; pH measurement gave values of 4.1 and 3.9 respectively, indicating that the products were slightly acidic. Mould detection gave positive results for the flour and negative results for most of the dough. The following colours green, black and yellow were observed on the plates indicating that probably Aspergillusflavus, nidulans, fumigatus, Aspergillusniger, and Aspergillusochraceus respectively were present in the flour. The sour dough showed very little or no growth of moulds after incubation period of 7 days. Therefore, from the results above moulds detected in the flour did not produce aflatoxins, hence not detected in dough. It may be concluded from this study that natural fermentation could have led to the destruction of aflatoxin producing moulds and thus reducing the level of moulds in the dough and malwa.
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    Analysis of pH and turbidity in palm oil industrial wastewater treatment using Moringa and Oleifera seed extract as a coagulant
    ( 2018-12-19) Kiyingi, Edrine
    The chemicals (Aluminium sulphate and ferric chloride) used as main coagulants during the treatment of Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) are harmful to the environment through pH deviation and high turbidity in the released waste water. The objective of this study was to experimentally determine the pH and turbidity of this waste water sample using a natural coagulant (Molinga Oleifera Seed (MOS) extract). pH and Turbidity of the waste water sample (obtained from Bidco-Jinja plant Uganda) was carried out by the jar test method using a pH meter and a spectrophotometer respectively with the MOS extract dosages of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 mg/l. The following results were obtained; 8.44, 7.36, 7.28, 7.22, 7.18, 7.12 and 7.00 for pH and 10.15, 1.60, 1.02, 0.84, 0.62, 0.53 and 0.31 NTU for turbidity with respective MOS extract dosages ranging from 0 to 60mg/l. There was a significant pH correction from 8.44 to 7.0 and an efficient turbidity removal of 97%. Therefore, due to this turbidity reduction and pH correction; Moringa Oleifera seed extract should be used in POME waste water treatment since its abundant in nature and environmentally friendly compared to the chemicals.
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    Assessing fitness levels of Uganda Premier League soccer players using the Sparq test protocol
    (Makerere University, 2018-11) Kungu, Pius
    ABSTRACT Soccer the world's most popular sport is a physical activity that requires a high level of conditioning in addition to proficient technical and tactical skills. The game is intermittent in nature involving multiple motor skills with game characteristics imposing physical performance of soccer players be based on a combination of endurance, speed, agility and strength bounding them to have both a high power and capacity of the aerobic and anaerobic metabolism for highest performance level ability. The aim of the study was to assess fitness levels of Uganda Premier League soccer players using the SPARQ test protocol. The study used six UPL soccer team which included; URA FC, Express FC, Vipers SC, KCCA FC, Police FC and Ndejje University FC. The study used those team’s soccer players in the testing from the different playing positions of goalkeeping, defending, midfielders and forwards. Data collection tools were used in recording information obtained from participants after completion of required tests including the standing vertical jump height, 20m sprint, Arrowhead agility test and the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery level 2 test. The study used 41 UPL soccer players of which 6 were goalkeepers, 11 were defenders, 14 were midfielders and 10 were forwards. The study found out the following means±s.d; age 22.76±2.63years, weight 73.947±6.641 kg, height 1.777±060m, BMI 23.40±1.80kgm-2, standing vertical jump height 53.921 ±7.1 02cm, 20m sprint 3.599±0.220s, Arrowhead agility right 8.820±0.492s - left 8.91 1 ±0.423s, Yo-Yo IR2 10.329±4.135 level. No statistical significant difference was found among different playing position in all fitness components (p>0.05) at 5% level of confidence. Positional specific difference existed among all aspects of fitness; defenders, midfielders and forwards showed almost similar lower BMI to that of the goalkeepers; goalkeepers and defenders showed almost similar higher jumping heights to those of the almost similar least jump heights of forwards and midfielders; all player positions showed almost similar 20m sprint time but with forwards being fastest and goalkeepers slowest; forwards showed higher agility levels followed by midfielders and defenders with almost similar agility levels and then the goalkeepers with the least; forwards, midfielders and defenders showed almost similar higher anaerobic endurance capacity to those of the lower goalkeepers' capacity.
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    Assessing the potential of Azolla to boost homestead production and quality of Daucus Carota l. in Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2019) Namugalu, Aisha
    Azolla has pronounced effect growth, yield and nutritive value of Daucus carota. An experiment was carried out at the Makerere Botanic garden. Azolla was applied under four different treatments i.e. 50g, 100g, 150g & 200g and a control experiment was included. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design and it consisted of 15pots. Each treatment was replicated thrice. Seeds of the nantes Daucus carota variety were sown on 4th January 2019 and harvesting was done on 4th April 2019. Each pot had three Daucus carota plants and data was collected randomly from each plant at harvest. Azolla showed significant effects on growth and yield of Daucus carota. Maximum shoot height was obtained by 250g treatment and maximum fresh weight was obtained by 50g treatment. Fresh weight of the control and 100g were not significantly different, the 100g treatment had abnormally low fresh weight due to infestation by spider mites that started at this point. The results of nutrient composition of 100g were also lower than expected. The 250g treatment showed the best response in all parameters except for fresh weight. 50g treatment showed the best response in fresh weight. The poorest performance for all parameters was recorded in the control. The results of the study revealed that all parameters except crude fiber content were significantly influenced by Azolla application. Generally, those Azolla fertilization rates that maximized carrot root yield also maximized carrot quality as determined by protein, beta carotene and carbohydrate concentrations.
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    Assessing the practice of pre-exercise screening among gym goers in Kampala
    ( 2018-11-04) Gayira, Julius
    Pre-exercise screening is a comprehensive scientific method conducted by an appropriately trained health fitness professional that possesses a certification equivalent to the ACSM or higher which helps to ascertain whether an individual is fit enough to participate in exercise program and also whether the exercise equipment is appropriate for the individual. The study was carried out to assess the awareness level about the importance of pre-exercise screening in gyms, observe the actual pre-exercise screening measures done before every gym session and suggest ways of improving pre-exercise screening amongst clients in gyms. The purpose of this study is to assess the pre-exercise screening practice among gyms in Kampala. The researcher will use the descriptive research design to help access and describe the practice of pre-exercise screening among gym goers in Kampala. The researcher will use simple random sampling to deal with the gym goers where they will all have a chance of being of being selected. It will lead to generalization of results which will also be free from bias. The sampling size the researcher is dealing with will include the women (20) and men (25). The researcher will make use of questionnaires which will have close-ended questions to guide the subjects into answering questions. This will have boxes were the subjects can tick in the area of preference. Most of the subjects were employed whilst a few were unemployed and no student participated in the study. The youth were most collaborative in their age category and largely resided in Kampala. Clients had prior knowledge of pre-exercise screening but their exercise professionals hardly discussed it with them. They are very active gym goers and follow scientific methods of training of which their exercise professionals seek their consent prior to any decision making. There are no medical units reported. Exercise professionals were noted to be certified to conduct their work. Based on the findings, the researcher concludes that pre-exercise screening is rarely conducted in gyms. The managers are aware of the necessity of conducting pre-exercise screening but choose to forfeit the practice only using skills of observation, mental judgment and physical readiness to train the clients. . The recommendations are 1) The Ministry of Health should ensure that as a law, all gyms must have a medical unit constructed within the confinement of the gym and there should be a qualified and recognized doctor to diagnose the clients on an ongoing process, 2)The Ministry of Education and Sports should ensure that all exercise professionals possess a certificate/diploma in gym training. The ministry should establish a center where all training will be conducted and only graduates from the center will be allowed to train clients.
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    Assessment of the impact of physical exercises on brain memory of children in primary schools in Kampala
    (Makerere University, 2018-10) Nyangoma, Ahumuza Anabella
    Research among school-aged children has demonstrated that physical exercise especially aerobic exercises have positive effects on brain memory and that it is associated with academic achievement and desirable classroom behavior. The general aim of this study was to assess the impact of physical exercise on brain memory of children in primary schools of Uganda in Kampala Region, a case of Kitante Primary School. In a bid to achieve this objective, the study sought to establish the different ways children are engaged in physical activity exercises; to find out the level of involvement in physical activity exercises; as well to find out the relationship between physical activity and brain memory of children in primary schools in Uganda. The study was carried out in Kitante primary school, Central Division, Kampala Capital City. Study population comprised of teachers, children, coaches and parents of Kitante primary school. The target population of 75 children aged 9-14 years was selected from different classes. Simple random sampling was used. Data was collected using questionnaires and use of scientific experiments. Qualitative data was analyzed through content analysis whereas quantitative data was analyzed using figures and tables. The study reveals that school going children generally do not satisfactorily engage in physical activity exercises required in boosting their critical thinking skills, grade point averages and standardized test scores. The study concludes that the magnitude of both moderate and vigorous physical exercises affects the brain memory of the primary school children either positively or negatively and hence influencing their academic performance. The study recommended the need for the government to spearhead and develop a workable policy on physical activity promotion in school, training of both children and teachers, media campaign on the awareness of physical activity impact on brain memory of Children.
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    An assessment of the outcome of military enforcement of Lake Victoria fisheries. A case study of Kasenyi Landing Site Study Of Kasenyi Landing Site
    (Makerere University, 2018-10) Karuhanga, Edwin
    The fisheries resources in Lake Victoria are facing the challenges of poor management, which threaten their sustainability due to the use of destructive fishing gears such as undersized long line, seines monofilaments and small fishnets. Such situation has necessitated the use of alternative management approaches like fisheries enforcement units which promote fisheries resources management. The main objective of the study is to investigate the sprinkle effect of militarizing enforcement of Lake Victoria fisheries management. The specific of objective were to assess the; level of community awareness with respect to illegal and unregulated fisheries; short-terms impact of the fisheries protection force (FPF) and challenges faced by the fisheries protection force in managing lake Victoria fishery. Findings from the study show that military enforcement in the lake Victoria basin have succeeded in reducing unsustainable practices and ensuring sustainable management of the fisheries resources.ie confiscating illegal fishing practices , arresting and prosecuting offenders. However, they need more moral, material support for enhanced sustainability and also a need to involve community members and stakeholders such as policy and decision makers, researchers and non-governmental institutions in the management of fisheries resources in the lake and aquatic environment.
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    Augmenting vitamin C in cabbage
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Kyakuwa, Ivan
    The popularity of fermented foods is due to their enhanced shelf life, safety, functionality, sensory and nutritional properties. This has therefore prompted interest in fermented vegetables. Cabbage is a highly preferred vegetable since it’s a cheap good source of vitamin C and also its easily and cheaply preservation through fermentation as sauerkraut which also enhances the vitamin C content of the cabbage. Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant which is its most vital role is as a water-soluble vitamin in the human body. The objective of this research was to determine if fermentation augments the vitamin C content in cabbage. Two colour varieties of cabbage i.e. red and white were used with two samples of each colour variety. The samples were labelled accordingly (X and Y) for the red cabbage and (A and B) for white cabbage. Each sample was shredded, mixed with 2% salt concentration and fermented for 10 days. The fermentation process was monitored through measurement of pH. The ascorbic acid content was examined before and after the 10 days fermentation period by titration with iodine solution (0.005M) for the extracted cabbage juice of the samples. During the fermentation process, the pH of the fermented samples decreased significantly to 3.4, 3.5, 3.7 and 3.6 for samples A, B, X and Y respectively. The ascorbic acid content of the samples A, B, X and Y increased to 36.37, 53.72, 111.40 and 121.52 mg/100g of cabbage respectively after the fermentation process. The results of this study showed that in general, fermentation enhances the vitamin C content of cabbage and the red cabbage variety has higher vitamin C content in both the fresh and sauerkraut forms.
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    Auto-oxidative changes in un-refrigerated goat meat
    (Makerere University, 2019-08) Nasaazi, Sharon
    Lipid peroxidation of biological samples may be assesed by different chemical and physical methods. However, those based on the measurement of malondialdehyde formed from the breakdown of endoperoxides during the last stages of the oxidation of a poly unsaturated fatty acid appear to be the most widely used. A simple and a highly sensitive spectrophotometric method for determining thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) as markers of lipid peroxidation was used. The method is based on the reaction between malondialdehyde and thiobarbituric acid to form a pink chromogen whose absorbance can be determined spectrophotometrically at 532nm.
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    Biocidal effects of neem and aloe vera extracts on xanthomonas campestris pv campestris in cabbage
    (Makerere University, 2019-06) Ahumuza, Jeninah
    Neem and Aloe vera plants which are known to have antimicrobial activity have been tested against Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris that causes black rot disease in cabbage. Black rot disease affects all cruciferous crops causing tremendous economic losses. The disease is difficult to control with the cultural methods however copper based chemicals are being used by farmers. These synthetic chemicals are not only expensive to purchase but also buildup in the environment causing adverse effects on non-target organisms. This limits their use on small scale and in a long run. Degradable biopesticides from Neem and Aloe vera plants as an alternative potential have been exploited and used by farmers with less knowledge on when and how to apply them. The method of extraction and application have been worked on in this study. This study was experimental, involving collection of Aloe vera and neem leaf samples from the botanical garden and Namulonge village respectively. The study was conducted in the research laboratory and the screen house in the botanical garden under department of Plant sciences, Microbiology and biotechnology Makerere University. This research was run for a period of four months. Samples collected were used to make extracts using water, ethanol and methanol as solvents with the objective of determining the in vitro and in vivo inhibition of Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris cultures and in cabbages respectively. Both fresh and dry sample leaves of Aloe vera and Neem were used to make extracts in different solvents Four treatments Aloe vera, Neem, Mancozeb (fungicide) as a positive control and 5% DMSO (negative controls) for extracts reconstituted in DMSO or sterile distilled water (negative control) for extracts made using water as a solvent. In vitro bioassays were performed using agar well diffusion where the zones of inhibition were measured. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used for in vivo experiments. The cabbage seedlings were inoculated through spraying the bacterial suspension and wounding, and applied with treatments of Aloe, Neem, Mancozeb common fungicide (positive treatment), and 5 % DMSO (negative treatment) and Neem + Aloe extract after 24hrs. The seedlings were observed for symptom expression and scaled for disease severity. At the end of the experiment the plants were cut longitudinally to observe for vascular discoloration. Two experiments for both in vitro and in vivo tests were performed to achieve reliability of results. Findings in this study reveal antibacterial effects of Aloe vera and Neem against both Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris in cultures and cabbage seedlings in both experiments. The mean zone of inhibition against Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris cultures was; Fungicide (20.31mm, 23.33mm), Neem (9.45mm, 4.88mm) and Aloe vera (5.27mm, 3.28mm) DMSO and water (0mm, 0mm) for both the first and second experiment respectively. Neem + Aloe vera combination tested in the second experiment had 4.75 as the mean inhibition zone. The Mean zones of inhibition of extracts against Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris revealed a significant difference in the antibacterial activity of Aloe vera, Neem and fungicide. There was delayed symptom expression in plants treated with Neem and Aloe vera compared to 5% DMSO treated plants used as the negative control. Neem + Aloe combination performed as good as the fungicide. There was no visible v-shaped lesions and vascular discoloration for plants treated with fungicide and neem + aloe extract. The disease was more severe in plants treated with 5% DMSO, less severe in those treated with aloe and neem extracts. Plants treated with fungicide, Neem +Aloe combination did not show any disease symptoms for both experiments. Neem and Aloe vera extracts were found to have antibacterial effect and their possible combinations could enhance the modes of action of phytochemicals against black rot pathogen.
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    Carbon dioxide purification from fermentation by cryogenic process and distillation process
    (Makerere University, 2017) Aliguma, Moses
    The aim of the study was to reduce on carbon dioxide emission arising from alcoholic fermentation processes that impact on human health and environment and also assess the relationship between temperature and pressure parameters during purification of carbon dioxide. This work was done at BDF distillery. Multi-stage compression, refrigeration, separation and distillation is cryogenic separation and distillation method that separated majority of the CO2 from the gas mixture with relatively high purity. Subsequently, the separated crude liquid CO2 is distilled under high pressure and near ambient temperature conditions so that low energy penalty purification is achieved. Initially gaseous mixture is stored in the carbon dioxide sack then initially dehydrated before they are fed into the system, compressed, and cooled down to near ambient temperature thus achieving the cryogenic separation and liquefaction processes where most of the water is condensed and can be extracted out afterwards, while the rest is absorbed by a high-efficiency adsorbent (molecular sieve). At this point, a part of the CO2 is liquefied from the mixed gases. Using a gas-liquid separator CO2 product is separated from gaseous mixtures of the purge gases. The crude liquid CO2 separated from the cryogenic separation subsystem is further purified in the distillation subsystem at temperatures –20 °C to 20 °C and –10°C to 30 °C, to improve its purity. A sample of liquefied carbon dioxide after distillation is taken to laboratory for purity test using carbon dioxide purity tester. Its purity range was between (99.2- 99.9) % with impurity (2% to 5 %.) content in the separated liqui
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    Characterisation of time dependent flows using finite size lyapunov exponents (FSLEs)
    (Makerere University, 2019) ALINAITWE, BONNY
    In transport systems in water or atmosphere, many catastrophes occur. For example if there was an oil spill in lake Albert as a result of busting of the oil pipes, it would result into death of aquatic animals and also affect water transport if not controlled. Hazards that occur in specific locations of water bodies or atmosphere can be identified Lagrangially by computing Finite Size Lyapunov Exponents (FSLEs). The computation of finite Size Lyapunov Exponents will help in the identification of the rates of flow of fluid particles in either a water body or air and thus be able to avoid hazardous locations that could be associated with high rates of accidents
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    Co-digestion of cow-dung with kitchen waste for biogas production
    (Makerere University, 2018-11) Mutesasira, Julius
    Kitchen waste, cow dung and a mixture of kitchen waste and cow dung were anaerobically digested. The performance of a single substrate and co-digestion of kitchen waste with cow dung were compared. The samples containing 400 grammes of the sample of kitchen waste, cow dung produced 55.0cm3 of gas after 18 days. The results obtained on co-digestion of kitchen waste to cow dung in a ratio of 3:1 had produced 86cm3 yet that in a ratio of 1:1 formed 82.3cm3 and that in 1:3 produced 84cm3 by the 18th day. The increase was attributed to the synergistic effect of co-digestion process and the high nutrient contents in the kitchen waste (cellulose, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils among others). The results showed that co-digestion could obtain better and stable performances and might be one of the many options for efficient biogas production. The kinetics of single substrate digestion closely followed the first order yet co-digestion deviated greatly from first order
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    The coagulation of turbid water using jackfruit seed extract
    (Makerere University, 2018-06) Ssekitoleko, Mark
    Turbid water was treated using both an extract of jackfruit seed (1%W/V) and a solution of aluminum sulphate (1%W/V) in separate experiments to monitor the coagulation and flocculation effects of each solution on the water. The set up with aluminum sulphate was used as a basis for comparing the performance of the seed extract since aluminum sulphate is well known for this work. The results showed that at all concentrations, the seed extract provided coagulant activity but at a less efficient performance than the aluminum sulphate. Turbidity removal expressed in percentage was used as a basis for conclusions as well as the comparison of the total suspended solids before and after treatment with the coagulant. The results showed that jackfruit seed extract is a potential valuable coagulant that can be used in absence of sophisticated methods of water treatment.
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    Compararative study on the antibacterial effect of urea on Escherichia coli and staphylococcus aureus
    (Makerere University, 2019-07) Atapi, Nancy Ebong
    This research aimed at finding out the antibacterial effect of urea on urinary tract E. coli and S.aureus. Over the years, urine was considered as a good medium for bacterial growth. However recent research provides evidence of antibacterial activity of urine which is attributed to urea concentration in the urine. But these reports do not justify if the activity is attributed to urea concentration only or due to synergistic activity with other factors in urine. Urea concentration in relation to its antibacterial effect was thereby studied as one parameter in order to justify the claim of its antibacterial activity. E.coli and S.aureus were exposed to urea containing medium however there was no effect on S.aureus which was attributed to its thick cell wall compared to other gram-positive bacteria and the presence of enzyme urease. There was an effect on E. coli but not very significant as expected which may be due to the evolutionary changes in E. Coli leading to increased resistance. On the other hand, the reduced effect of urea on E. coli could actually suggest that optimal antibacterial activity of urine is achieved due to synergistic activity of various factors in urine.